National Academies Press: OpenBook

Learning to Think Spatially (2006)

Chapter: Index

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Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 2006. Learning to Think Spatially. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11019.
×

Index

A

Abstract concepts, 41, 45-47, 91

etak, 139-140

Access Excellence, 209

Advanced Visualization System (AVS), 157, 170, 171, 286

Age

and perceptual imaging, 97

and spatial skills, 101, 108, 270, 274-275

Air traffic control and controllers, 54-55, 93, 95

Alexandria Digital Library, 34-35

Algebra, 19, 91, 92, 117, 126, 130

Alpha Centauri, 62

American Forests, 180, 190

AML, 166

Andromeda Nebula, 64, 67

Animation environments, 46, 80, 105, 108, 149, 156, 157, 158, 159, 171, 182, 219, 224, 286

Anthropogeography, 88

Application program interface (API), 156, 157, 173-174

ArcCatalog, 224

ArcEditor, 222

ArcExplorer, 161, 167, 223

ArcGlobe, 224-226

Architects and architectural design, 12, 28, 40, 43, 54, 55, 95, 97, 100, 104, 141, 155, 156

ArcIMS, 222

ArcInfo, 222

ArcLessons, 209

ArcReader, 222

ArcSDE, 222

ArcView, 156, 166-167, 173, 174, 177, 180, 185-187, 190-192, 194, 196-198, 200, 201, 202, 204, 209, 222-226, 290, 291

ArcView GIS, 166, 184, 188, 222, 226

ArcVoyager, 167, 184, 185-187, 190, 191, 223, 291

Assembly instructions, 50, 51

Association for Geographic Information (AGI), 289, 291

Association of American Geographers (AAG), 292

Association of Research Libraries, 215

Astronomy. See Astrophysical spatialization

parsec unit, 62

Astrophysical spatialization

absolute magnitude, 62-63, 64, 66

beyond solar system, 60-67, 68

Copernican model, 59, 60

distance scales, 57, 60, 64, 65, 67-68

Earth shape and size, 57-58, 65, 67

epicycles, 59, 61

expertise in, 55, 57-58

frames of reference, 57-58, 59

geocentric theory, 60

heliocentric theory, 60, 61

Hertzsprung-Russell diagram, 62-64

Hubble constant and, 64-65, 68

main sequence, 63, 64

measurements, 56, 58, 60-67

parallax concept, 60, 62, 64

pattern recognition, 56

period-luminosity diagram, 64, 66

primitives, 56, 57

Ptolemaic universe, 59, 60, 61

role of, 67-68, 94

solar system, 59, 67

spectroscopic parallaxes, 64

standard candle, 64

time dimension, 56, 57, 59

universe structure and evolution, 56-57, 64, 68

Atlas GIS, 167

Atmospheric physics/physicists, 80, 81

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 2006. Learning to Think Spatially. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11019.
×

AutoCAD, 156, 285

Autodesk Map, 167

Avenue, 166, 191, 192

B

Barrington Middle School (Rhode Island), 180

Batik SVG Toolkit (BGRG), 286

Berkeley Geo-Research Group, 290

Bessel, Friedrich, 62

Big Bang theory, 64

Bishop Dunne Catholic School (Texas), 212

Botany/botanists, 53, 69, 209, 291

Brahe, Tycho, 60, 62, 67

Bruner, Jerome, 11-12, 16, 20, 150, 176, 237, 270-271

Bunge, William, 93

C

California State University, San Bernardino, 291, 292

Car safety seat (CSS) installation, 49-50

Cartesian coordinate system, 3, 12, 27, 149, 272

Cartographic modeling, 27, 169-171, 173

Cartography, 83, 113, 156, 222, 287, 288

Center for Image Processing in Education (CIPE), 290

Central place theory, 56, 88-93

Cepheid variables, 64, 66, 67

Charlottesville Education Summit, 111

Chemistry, 27, 43, 181

Chess players, 96, 97

Chorology, 88

Christaller, Walter, 48, 49, 56, 88-93, 95

CITYgreen, 180-181, 190

Cognition/cognitive

development, 270, 271

environmental, 26, 29

geographic, 287, 289

maps/mapping, 26, 27, 29, 142

skills, 12, 81.

See also Spatial skills and abilities

about space, 30

in space, 30

with space, 30

spatial tool kit, 27

Collaborative Visualization Project (CoVIS), 290

Color

identifying and classifying objects by, 70

recognition and evaluation, 41, 42, 43, 53, 56, 138

representations, 16, 52, 80, 104, 105, 141, 143, 149, 169, 170, 171, 180-181

Columbia University, 83

Communication, in mathematics, 116, 117

Community Atlas project, 210, 291

Community Geography: GIS in Action, 179, 209

Community Mapping Program, 291

Community projects with GIS

crime reduction, 179, 212

pollution hazard mapping, 181, 213

vegetation mapping and analysis, 180-181, 190

water quality monitoring, 179, 180, 212-213

Computer-assisted design (CAD) systems, 12, 19, 20, 141, 155, 156, 158, 185, 290

Concept graphing tools, 32, 157, 286

Concept maps/mapping, 19, 30, 156, 157, 159, 282

Concepts for spatial thinking, 18-19, 26, 29-31, 32, 33

Coordinate systems

3D, 151

ability to use, 276

abstract, 139-140

Cartesian, 3, 12, 27, 149, 272

Earth-anchored conceptual, 69, 77-79, 160

geometry standard, 118, 120, 121, 122, 123

latitude-longitude, 37, 38, 148, 149, 162, 168

local, 38

polar, 3, 12, 123

raster data, 160, 223

rotating, 123

specific, 149

spheres, 123

State Plane Coordinate System, 148, 149, 183

temporal, 171

transformations, 149, 173

Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM), 149, 183

vector models, 70, 160, 223

Copernicus, 59

Corel Draw, 285

Coriolis effect, 123

Crescent School (Ontario), 213

Crick, Francis, 1-3, 55

Crime monitoring, 179, 212

Crystallography/crystallographers, 69, 70, 72, 103

Curriculum. See K-12 curriculum

Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics, 165

D

Data

analysis and probability, 116, 117, 156

attribute, 162, 163

collection, 14, 156

combining spatial and nonspatial data, 88

correction procedures, 55, 171

extrapolation and interpolation, 55, 86-87

generalization, 55

geometric, 162

GIS characteristics, 159-162, 171, 173, 175, 217

management, 13, 16, 30, 32, 34-35, 55, 76-77, 111, 156, 177, 223, 224

mining, 34, 111

models, 160-161, 173, 175, 183, 223

nonspatial, 88, 168-169

pixel, 32, 175

quality and quantity, 102, 171

raster, 32, 156, 160, 161, 173, 183, 223

retrieval, 34

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 2006. Learning to Think Spatially. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11019.
×

space for interpreting, 28

spatialization of, 6, 31-33, 34, 35, 111, 148-149, 156, 157, 168-169, 182

vector, 160, 161, 173, 175, 223

visualization, 13, 16, 30, 32, 34, 76-77, 111

Data Explorer (DX), 155, 157, 170, 171, 286

DataScape, 291

Demographics

economic processes integrated with, 180

geographic metaphors, 30, 33

GIS applications, 180, 237-240

workforce needs, 112

Developmental theories, 270-271

Developmentally appropriate education, 270

Diagrams, 19

animated vs. still, 46

central place, 89, 91, 93

devices that focus attention, 46, 47, 102, 177

DNA structure, 2

equal-area projection, 70, 71

flow, 45, 46

GIS output, 169, 189

Hertzsprung-Russell, 62-64

hierarchical, 27, 30, 40

as instructional device, 47-48, 50, 102, 116, 138, 139, 283

mattang stick chart, 138

period-luminosity, 64-66

phase, 27, 36, 133

physiographic, 84, 86, 88

purpose of, 47

reasoning from, 41, 47, 102, 104, 284

and recall, 47, 96, 282, 283

schematic, 27, 50, 282, 283

of spatial operations, 30, 45, 47, 56, 70, 102

T-S, 82

types of, 27-28

Diatoms, 72

Digital Library for Earth System Education (DLESE), 209, 210

Digital Quest, 209

Dimensionality, 12, 47, 102.

See also Coordinate systems

domain considerations, 37

frames of reference, 53-54

GIS capacity, 169

motion and, 54-55, 56, 59, 80-81

three-space, 37, 53, 54-55, 70, 80, 102, 151

transformation, 40, 149

two-space representation, 13, 16, 32, 37, 53, 70, 76-77, 102, 121, 169

Directionality, 37, 43, 45, 58

Director, 157, 171, 182, 286

Distance, 46, 47, 82

astronomical scales, 57, 60, 64, 65, 67-68

as measure of time, 81-82

Distortions, 40, 41, 45, 52, 72-73

DNA structure, 1-3, 55, 103

Drawing inferences.

See also Problem solving;

Reasoning

expertise in, 47, 53, 72, 86, 88, 102, 104

from shapes, 72-76, 77

from size, 57-58, 74, 90, 91, 92

E

Earth science

competency of students, 114

curriculum, 123, 291

education standards, 119-120, 123, 129

GIS software, 215

Earth Science Information Partners (ESIP), 215

Earth System Science Internet Project (ESSIP), 207

Earthviewer, 171, 172

Eastern Michigan University, 291

Echo sounders and echograms, 84, 86-87

Education Applications of GIS (EdGIS) conference, 290, 291, 292

Education reform, 12, 111-112

recommendations, 131, 133-134

Educational challenges

committee position statement, 7-8, 233-234

concepts for spatial thinking, 18-19

curriculum design, 134

resource-related, 103, 110, 190

support tools, 7-10, 19-20, 144-145, 233-235

Educational software

collaborative model, 215

commercial model, 214-215

customization, 174, 182, 183, 184, 185, 190-192, 218-219, 293-297

Earth Science, 215

geometry, 168, 169, 173, 183

GIS, 164-165, 166, 167-168, 173, 178-179, 184-185, 214-216, 220, 285;

see also individual products

market, 204-205, 232

open vs. closed architecture, 188-189, 215

redesign challenges, 214-216, 220

resources, 285-286

Seasonal Differences module, 293-297

Einstein, Albert, 45, 95

Electronic circuit design, 95

Embedded figures test, 26

Emergent phenomena, 104

Encarta, 184

Environmental and Spatial Technology (EAST) initiative, 179, 290

Environmental cognition, 26, 29

Environmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI), 19, 166, 167, 177, 184, 185, 186, 188, 190-191, 200, 201, 206, 208, 209, 210-211, 215, 220, 223, 224, 285, 290, 291-292

Epicycles, 59, 61

Epidemiology, 12, 55

arsenic in drinking water, 13

Snow’s cholera maps, 13, 14-15

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 2006. Learning to Think Spatially. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11019.
×

ER Mapper, 285

Eratosthenes of Cyrene, 57-58, 67

Erdas, 156, 285

Etak, 139-140

Everyday life

GIS in, 158-159

IT applications, 111

spatial thinking in, 12, 30, 42, 43, 49-52

Ewing, Maurice, 86

Expertise in spatial thinking

acquisition of knowledge, 95, 100-101, 103-104, 107

age and, 108

challenges in developing, 103-104

chess example, 96, 97

cognitive processes, 98-100, 107

combining spatial and nonspatial data, 88

differences in, 95-103

domain-specific, 40, 53-54, 55, 67-68, 94, 95, 96, 101, 104, 108

expertise in creating and understanding, 47, 87-88, 95-96, 101, 104

fostering, 107-108

inference and intuition, 47, 53, 72, 86, 88

intelligence and, 95, 96

memory and recall, 88, 95, 96-98

nature of, 95-96

novices compared, 46-47, 54, 55, 56, 70, 71, 75, 77, 79, 80, 93, 101

pattern recognition, 42, 54, 87

projects for, 104-105

role of, 46-47, 93, 101-102

in science, 55, 56, 57-58, 68, 69-70, 71, 72, 75, 76, 77, 78-80, 83-88, 93

transformations, 44

visualization, 76-77, 80-81, 84, 88, 103

at work, 52-53

Explore Your World, 209

Extending Scientific Inquiry Through Collaborative Geographic Information Systems, 208, 292

F

Federation of GIS Education Partners, 215, 220

Flash, 157, 171, 182, 286

Foraminifera, 72, 74, 75

Fractal Technologies, 156, 285

Frames of reference, 37, 41, 42, 44, 45.

See also Coordinate systems

abstract, 139-140

astrophysical, 57-58, 59

dimensionality, 53-54

replotting, 149

rotating, 123, 129

FreeHand, 157, 285

Function concept, 19

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (FMRI), 19

G

GenScope project, 105

Geocentric theory, 60

Geodesy, 57, 290

Geographic information systems (GIS)

academic model, 214, 215

accessibility to all learners, 186-190, 192

administrative and institutional support, 202-203

analytical capabilities, 171, 173-174, 177, 190, 210

animation environment, 171, 182, 219, 224

appeal to students, 182, 219

applications, 164, 166, 180

appropriateness to student needs, 173, 179, 183-192, 205, 218

assessment as an educational support system, 176, 182-183, 191-192, 203, 213-214, 217-225

buffer analysis, 175

capabilities, 156-159, 165, 167-176

community support, 179-182, 190, 212-213, 218, 220

compatibility issues, 200

competitions, 210-212, 292

component-based or open system architecture, 184

components, 160

computing environment in schools and, 200-203

coordinate system, 171

curriculum support, 208-212, 213, 218, 220, 237-240

customizability, 174, 182, 183, 184, 185, 190-192, 218-219, 224, 293-297

data characteristics, 159-162, 171, 173, 175, 217

data management, 177, 223, 224

design criteria, 176-203, 215, 218-219

difficulties in using, 193-200

educational context, 192-203

for English language learners, 189-190

in everyday life, 158-159

expert users, 164, 183, 219

flexibility in contexts and modes of use, 192-193

and GPS, 39, 156, 212

graphic variables, 170

implementation in schools, 193-214, 219-220

infrastructure demands, 200-203, 219

inquiry-based learning with, 176-177, 182-183, 210

instructional support, 204, 206-208, 213, 214, 222

Internet access, 202, 204

K-12 software, 164-165, 166, 167-168, 173, 178-179, 184-185;

see also individual products

logistical support, 205-206, 213, 214, 219

low-tech learning tools, 205

material support for, 179, 204-205, 213, 219

media support, 169, 171

meeting educational goals, 176-183

modeling capabilities, 169-171, 173, 175, 190

nature and functions, 158-164

and navigation, 38-39, 158

nongeographic spaces, 168

novice users, 184, 185-187, 193-200, 219

operational functions, 18, 40, 158, 162-163, 168, 171, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 187, 205, 207, 218

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 2006. Learning to Think Spatially. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11019.
×

overlay (thematic layers) analysis, 162-163, 175, 180-181, 193-195

personal guidance system, 38-39

problem solving in real-world contexts, 177-179, 218

proximity analysis, 175

queries, 163, 196-197

recommendations, 9-10, 234-235

representations, 118-119, 170-171

resource constraints in schools, 192-199

role in spatial thinking, 15, 18, 19

size transformations, 169, 170, 171-173, 175, 183-184, 198-199, 225

spatialization capacity, 168-169, 176, 182

standards-based education and, 118-119, 200, 212, 214

status as support system, 164-165, 220-221

teacher-related issues, 189-190, 193, 200-201, 204, 206-208, 214, 219-220

technological evolution, 222-226

time line for introduction into K-12 education, 289-292

time modeling, 171

transfer of learning across domains, 179-182, 218

transformation capacity, 158-159, 169, 170, 171-173, 174, 175, 177, 183-184, 198-199, 218, 225

user interfaces, 9, 171, 173, 174, 177, 182, 184, 185, 188-189, 196-197, 219, 224

virtual applications, 171, 188-189, 237, 291

visualization capacity, 9, 169-171, 176, 177, 210, 214, 217-218, 234

for visually impaired learners, 188-189

workplace applications, 168

Geographic Resources Analysis Support System (GRASS), 167, 215

Geography

active learning, 11-12

central place theory, 56, 88-93

defined, 116

education standards, 116

expertise in, 55, 56

information technology and, 110

as rational sets of induction, 11

spatial thinking in, 55, 56, 116

Geography Network, 209, 211

Geolocation systems, 111.

See also Global positioning system

Geology/geologists, 43

field, 76, 79-80

structural, 69, 70, 72

GeoMedia, 167, 179

Geometry

activities, 118

computational, 288

coordinate, 118, 120, 121, 122, 123, 130, 132

curriculum, 18, 118, 131

education standards, 114, 115, 116-118, 120-122, 123, 124-125, 130

Euclidean, 123

everyday applications, 142

geography integrated with, 58

GIS software, 168, 169, 173, 183

international student rankings, 114

projective, 274

science content linked to, 123, 124, 125, 129, 130

spatial thinking applied in, 19, 36, 37, 81, 92, 94, 115, 123, 126, 131

transformational, 114, 117, 118, 125, 130

Geomorphology/geomorphologists, 61, 74, 77, 86, 87

Geophysicists, 80

Georeferencing, 37, 143, 159, 180

Geoscience

analytical systems, 156, 158, 285

ascribing meaning to shapes, 72-76, 77

crystal planes of symmetry, 69, 70

describing position and orientation, 77-79

describing shapes, 69-70

equal-area projection diagrams, 70, 71

expert spatial thinking in, 55, 56, 57-58, 68, 69-70, 71, 72, 75, 76, 77, 78-80, 83-88, 101

identifying/classifying objects, 70-72

Miller indices, 70

motion in 3D space, 80-81

novice learning, 56, 70, 71, 75, 77, 79, 80, 93, 101

pattern recognition, 76, 78

processes of spatial thinking, 82-83

recall of object location and appearance, 79-80

representations for nonspatial parameters, 82

sedimentary folding, 69, 70

spatial operations, 68-83

time progression, 81-82

topographic maps, 79

visualization of structures, 76-77, 78, 80-81, 95

Geospatial technology

defined, 112-113

high-tech systems, 156, 158, 179

market characteristics, 112

support for, 179

Geospatial Technology Competency Model, 112-113

GeoVISTA Studio, 188

Geovisualization, 169

Girasek, Deborah, 49-50

GIS Day, 206, 291

GIScience, 159, 287-288, 291

Gladwin, Thomas, 137

Global positioning system (GPS), 55

data collection, 156

GIS and, 39, 156, 212

hand-held receiver, 16

Location Based Services (LBS), 111

mobile devices linked to, 110, 111

ocean navigation, 77, 78, 84, 136, 137, 141

personal guidance system, 38-39

tracking, 111, 143

water quality monitoring, 15, 16, 212-213

GLOBE, 193

Gradmann, Robert, 90

Graphics generators, 157, 159, 179

Graphing calculators, 19

Gravitational theory, 59

Greenbriar High School (Arkansas), 179

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 2006. Learning to Think Spatially. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11019.
×

H

Haptic mice, 188

Haptic Soundscapes Project, 189

Heezen, Bruce, 83-86, 87-88

Heliocentric theory, 60, 61

Hertzsprung, Edward, 62

Hertzsprung-Russell (H-R) diagram, 62-64

Hettner, Alfred, 88

High-stakes testing, 200, 212

Hubble constant, 64-65, 68

Hubble, Edwin, 64, 67, 68

Human Genome Project, 19

Humboldt, Alexander von, 88

Hutton, James, 72

I

Idrisi, 19, 156, 167, 200, 201, 204, 208, 214, 285

IHMC Concept Map, 286

IKONOS satellite, 16

Imagine, 156

Inferences. See Drawing inference

Information

geographic metaphor, 30, 33

nonvisual processing, 38-39

visualization systems, 156, 157, 159, 170, 171, 286

Information technology (IT).

See also Geospatial technology;

Support systems and tools;

Virtual world

intersection with space, 111

need for skilled thinkers, 110-111

skill building with GIS, 182

Inspiration, 286

Instruction. See Learning;

Teaching spatial thinking

Intellectual space, 28, 30, 31, 32, 48

Intelligence measurement and testing, 26

Interfaces. See User interfaces

Intergraph, 19, 179, 207-208, 215

IRIS Explorer, 286

Isotropic plane, 92

J

James Madison University, 291

JASON project, 289

K

K-12 curriculum, 13.

See also Teaching

competitions, 210-212, 292

design challenges, 134

GIS resources, 105, 121, 124-125, 126, 151, 209-210, 293-297

infusion of spatial thinking across, 5, 6, 101, 105-107, 109, 120, 131, 133-134, 147, 176, 179-181, 182, 183, 218, 231

interpreting representations, 47-48, 102

supports, 104-105, 151

transfer of spatial thinking across subjects, 101, 105-107

Kansas Collaborative Research Network (KanCRN), 193, 209, 290

Kekulé, Friedrich, 95

Kepler, Johannes, 59, 60, 67

Keyhole Inc. Images, 171

Knowledge. See Spatial knowledge

L

Lake Ontario Keeper, 213

Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory, 84

Learning.

See also Expertise in spatial thinking;

K-12 curriculum;

Transfer of learning

assimilation and accommodation, 270

cognitive development and, 270

collaborative projects, 192-193, 202

developmental theories and, 270-271

disabilities, 190

general principles, 106

inquiry-based, 133-134, 140, 145, 176-177, 182-183, 207, 210, 237-240

interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary, 181-182, 210

to learn, 101

multiple examples and, 106, 107

pattern, 99, 100

perceptual processes, 97-98, 100

performance-based environments, 179

practice and, 98-100, 103, 106, 107

problem-based, 207, 212

productivity, 106

representations, 281-282

rote, 144-145

spiral curriculum, 270-271

Leavitt, Henrietta, 64, 66

Life spaces, 12, 28, 30, 31, 48

Literacy.

See also Spatial literacy

defined, 4, 17, 49

verbal, 50

Location Based Services (LBS), 111

Location theory, 88-93

Logo software, 126

Looking at the Environment (LATE) program, 209, 210

M

Mac GIS, 167

Macaulay, David, 28, 29

Magic, 174

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 19, 27

Malone, Lyn, 237-240

MapExtreme, 200

MapInfo, 156, 167, 173, 174, 200, 204, 285

Maple, 156, 285

Mapping Our City project, 191, 208

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 2006. Learning to Think Spatially. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11019.
×

Mapping Our World: GIS Lessons for Educators, 189-191, 209, 222

Mapping System, 200

MapQuest, 111, 155, 183-184

Maps/mapping

Albers Equal Area, 173

cartographic, 27, 28, 33, 36, 57, 83, 85, 142, 145, 149, 156, 162, 169, 170, 171, 173, 288

chloropleth or isopleth, 188-189

cognitive, 26, 27, 29, 142

concept, 19, 30, 32, 156, 157, 159, 282, 286

contour, 84, 85, 88

digital elevation models, 86

environmental, 179, 180-181, 190, 212-213

geological, 79, 80

Internet structure, 168-169

mental, 52

modified Mercator projections, 27, 141, 145, 146, 173

paper-and-pencil activities, 133

reading and interpreting, 33, 36, 79, 104, 142

satellite-based systems, 84

seafloor, 56, 76-78, 83-88

self-organizing, 33

stellar, 64, 65

swath-mapping, 84

topographic, 79

weather, 104, 105, 223

web-based interactive, 223

Maptek, 285

Maptitude, 167

Marine geochemists, 80

Mathematica, 156, 285

Mathematical thinking, 25, 144

Mathematics.

See also Algebra;

Geometry

communication in, 116, 117

connections among ideas, 118

education standards, 114, 115-119

international comparison of student competencies, 113-114

representations in, 114, 115, 116, 118-119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 125, 130, 132

spatial concepts, 18

support tools, 19, 104, 118-119, 136, 141, 142, 144, 156, 159, 285

Matlab, 285

Measurement, mathematics standard, 117

Memory and recall, 11

chunking information, 97

classic model of, 97-98

diagrams as aid to, 47, 96, 282, 283

domain specificity, 100

and expertise, 88, 95, 96-98

learning and encoding new information, 281-282

long-term, 97, 142

method of loci, 281

mnemonic techniques, 281

overlearning and, 97

pattern recognition, 27, 40, 41, 42, 44, 53-54, 68, 76, 78, 82, 86, 96, 100, 276

peg word system, 281-282

reinstatement and generation techniques, 282-283

representations and, 45, 46, 47, 97, 98, 102, 107, 281-283

sensory storage, 97

sex differences, 277

structural differentiation, 98

support systems, 144

verbal materials, 97, 98, 282

working (short-term), 46, 97, 98, 100, 101, 107, 140-141

Mental imagery/practice, 43, 44, 55

Mental rotation, 18, 26, 27, 31, 40, 43, 44, 47, 52, 83, 98, 99-102, 107, 123, 130, 133, 150, 266, 267, 268, 274, 275, 276-277, 280

Meta-cognitive knowledge, 100, 106

Metaphors in spatial thinking, 12, 25, 34, 41, 93, 94

in everyday life, 45

geographic, 30, 33

graphics, 36

overlay integration, 180

root, 36, 56, 110

in science, 82, 83

“space” used for nonspatial parameters, 82

for virtual-world access, 110-111, 184

Meteorology, 27, 98, 103

Mfworks, 167

Micromine, 156, 285

MicroStation, 156, 285

Mineralogy/mineralogists, 69, 70-71, 76

Missouri Botanical Garden, 209, 291

Modified Mercator projection, 27

Motion/movement, 149, 170, 225, 271, 272

and angular estimation, 78

astrophysical, 56, 59, 61, 62, 68

describing, 129

directionality, 43, 45, 50

through geospaces, 82

parallactic, 62

representations, 43, 45

rotating frames of reference, 123, 129

through 3-D space, 80-81

in 3-D space-time, 54-55, 56, 59, 80-81

tracking, 38-39

and transformations, 102

visualization, 47, 69, 80-81

Multidimensional scaling (MDS), 12, 27, 111

Multiscalar analysis, 56

My Community, Our Earth: Geographic Learning for Sustainable Development, 210, 212, 292

My World, 167

N

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), 112, 215

National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), 113

National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR), 215

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 2006. Learning to Think Spatially. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11019.
×

National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), 113-114, 207

National Center for Geographic Information and Analysis (NCGIA), 208, 289, 290

National Education Goals, 111

National Education Standards

coupling between mathematics and science, 120-131

geography, 116

goals, 114-115

mathematics, 114-119

organization, 115

role of spatial thinking in, 6-7, 114-115, 208-209, 232

science, 114-115, 119-120

National Geographic Alliance, 208, 289

National Geographic Society (NGS), 290

National Geography Standards, 116, 165

National Science Education Standards, 165

categories, 115

content standards, 115, 119-120

mathematics standards linked to, 120-131

National Science Foundation (NSF), 208, 289, 290, 291

Navigation, 30, 94

angular estimations, 78-79

buffers, 39

celestial, 84, 87, 138, 140

computer programs, 38-39, 122

dead reckoning, 78-79, 84, 87, 138, 139

GIS technology, 158

GPS, 78, 84, 136

homing vector/path integration procedure, 142

knowledge of physical environment and, 138

landmarks, 38, 52, 53, 94, 142, 143, 213, 272, 277

map reading, 79

Mattang stick chart, 138

neurophysiology and, 52

oceanographic techniques, 77-79, 84, 87, 135-140, 141

personal guidance systems, 38-39

“piloting” system, 142

Puluwatan islanders, 135-140

sex differences in, 142

size evaluation and, 42

vehicle navigation systems, 111, 135-136, 142-143

virtual, 110, 193, 206, 207, 224

workplace networks, 53

Networks, 123

Neural networks, 33

Newton, Isaac, 59

No Child Left Behind Act, 114, 134, 186-188

Northwestern University, 290

Numbers and operations, 116, 117, 119

O

Objects

ascribing meaning to shapes, 72-76

concrete vs. abstract, 27

defined, 36-37

describing shapes, 69-70

distinguishing figures from ground, 41-42

embedded, 26, 44

identifying and classifying, 70-71

motion visualization, 80-81

position and orientation, 77-79

properties, 37-38

recall of, 40, 41-42, 44, 79-80

recognizing shapes or patterns, 76

remembering location and appearance, 79-80

shape change processes, 81

visualizing from 1D or 2D data, 76-77

Oceanography. See Physical oceanography/oceanographers

Onstar System, 142

Operations. See Spatial operations

Orientation. See Mental rotation;

Spatial orientation

Orton Family Foundation, 291

P

Paleontology/paleontologists, 70-71, 72, 76

Paper folding test, 26, 81

Parallax concept, 60, 62, 64

Patterns, 5, 19, 32, 33

description and analysis, 47, 91, 92, 150

in epidemiology, 13, 14-15, 16

with GIS, 18

noisy background, 76, 78, 86, 92

operations, 40, 41, 76

perceptual learning of, 100

process modeling, 150

random vs. systematic, 40

recognition, 27, 40, 41, 42, 44, 53-54, 68, 76, 78, 82, 86, 96, 100, 276

transformation of, 100

Pennsylvania State University, 290

Period-luminosity diagram, 64, 66

Personal Brain, 286

Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs), 111

Personal guidance systems (PGSs), 38-39

Perspective, 3, 12, 26, 27, 28, 31, 44, 47, 98, 100, 102, 118, 123-124, 131, 141, 143, 149, 225, 282.

See also Frames of reference

Petrology/petrologists, 69, 70-71, 82

Philosophy, 101

Photogrammetry, 287, 288

Photoshop, 19, 157, 285

Physical oceanography/oceanographers

conductivity-temperature-depth profiles, 76

seafloor mapping, 56, 76-77

visualization of structures, 76-77, 80

Physical science/physics

achievement of U.S. students, 114

curriculum, 18, 27, 47, 133

education standards, 114, 115, 119, 123, 124, 127-128

spatial concepts, 12, 18

spatial representations, 47, 57, 102

and spatial visualization, 76

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 2006. Learning to Think Spatially. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11019.
×

Physical space/environment, 28, 29-30, 31-32, 48, 118, 138, 177, 268, 271-272

Physiographic diagrams, 84, 86, 88

Piedmont Research Institute, 291

Pixel data, 32, 175

Plate tectonics, 86, 100

Point concept, 19

Pollution hazard mapping, 181, 213

Position of objects. See Spatial orientation

Precision data recorders (PDRs), 84

Pressure-temperature space, 82

Primitives, 25, 36-37, 40, 56, 57, 86

Principles and Standards for School Mathematics

content standards, 115

expectations for students, 115, 117-118

and GIS support, 118-119

process standards, 115

science standards linked to, 120-131

spatial thinking and, 115-119

Problem solving, 12, 13, 27-28, 48, 53

age and sex differences, 52

Buddhist monk problem, 283

car safety seat installation, 49-50

in everyday life, 49-52

knock-out tournament problem, 283-284

mathematics standard, 117, 120

representations and, 27, 107, 108, 283-284

in science, 83-88

Production graphics environments, 156, 157, 159, 285

Psychometric testing, 273

Ptolemaic universe, 59, 60, 61

Ptolemy, Claudius, 59

R

Radiologists and radiology, 53, 54, 95, 97, 98

Raster data models, 32, 156, 160, 161, 173, 183, 223

Ratzel, Friedrich, 88

Reading, 50

Reasoning.

See also Drawing inferences;

Problem solving

ascribing meaning from shapes, 72-76

from diagrams, 41, 47, 102, 104, 284

examples, 3, 12-13

from first principles, 75

mathematics standard, 117, 120, 121

problem solving, 121

processes, 28, 29, 40, 44, 45-46

scientific, 44

technology and, 126

Recall. See Memory and recall

Recommendations

GIS, 9-10, 234-235

spatial literacy goals, 7, 232-233

timetable for implementing, 236

Red River High School (North Dakota), 212-213

Relativity theory, 45, 95

Remote-sensing applications and imagery, 32, 42, 113, 149, 156, 158, 162, 183, 200, 285, 288, 290

Representations. See Spatial representations

Ritter, Carl, 88

Rodgers, John, 79

Russell, Henry Norris, 62

Russell Sage Foundation, 112

S

SAGUARO Project, 209

Satellite imaging, 16

Scale and scalar relations, 92.

See also Size

multidimensional, 12, 27, 111

progression, 31

properties, 37

terminal values (bounds), 37

transformation, 27, 149

Schematization, 45, 46

Science.

See also Astrophysical spatialization;

Geoscience

concepts of spatial thinking, 19

forms of thinking in, 12

international comparison of student competencies, 113-114

IT applications, 111

spatial thinking in, 27, 42, 43, 55-56

Seafloor

mapping, 56, 76-78, 83-88

sediment deposition patterns, 81, 84

spreading, 84, 86, 103

Secondary Education Project (SEP), 290

Secretary of Labor Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills (SCANS), 111-112

Sedimentology/sedimentologists, 69, 72-73, 74, 76, 81, 82

Sex differences

developmental emergence, 277

memory for spatial locations, 277

in navigation, 142

origins of, 277-280

problem solving, 52

in spatial performance, 269, 273, 276-277

Shapes.

See also Size;

Spatial orientation

ascribing meaning to, 72-76, 77

change processes, 81

describing, 69-70

identifying and classifying, 70-72

recognizing, 76

Simple Measure of Gobbledygook (SMOG) statistic, 50

Sims Superstars, 169

69 Cygni, 62

Size

comparison, 42

evaluation, 41, 42, 43, 45, 52, 53, 189

GIS modeling, 169, 170, 171, 172, 175, 225

inferences from, 57-58, 74, 90, 91, 92

scaling, 47, 56, 92

transformation, 44, 149, 169, 170, 171-173, 175, 183-184, 198-199, 225

zooming, 198-199

Small Magellanic Cloud, 64, 66

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 2006. Learning to Think Spatially. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11019.
×

Smallworld, 174

Smith, William, 79-80

Snow, John, 13, 14-15, 16

Software. See Educational software;

individual packages

Space

as basis for spatial thinking, 36-40

economic model of, 91-92

examples, 12

forms of thinking about, 25-27

as framework for understanding, 28-33

GIS context, 168

Internet intersection with, 111

for interpreting data, 28

languages of, 37, 40

objective vs. subjective, 27

properties, 12

SPACESTARS program, 209-210

Spatial ability. See Expertise in spatial thinking;

Spatial skills and abilities

Spatial agnosia, 94

Spatial amnesia, 94

Spatial analysis, 88-93, 158-159

Spatial attitude, 27

Spatial cognition, 26, 30, 272

Spatial development

age-linked, 271-272

theoretical approached, 272-273

Spatial knowledge, 18-19, 27

domains, 12

Spatial location, 40, 45

Spatial literacy

components, 16-20

fostering, 3-4, 12, 15-20, 89-90, 105

and problem solving, 49

student characteristics, 4, 20

Spatial operations, 25

ability to perform, 26

analytical, 160

ascribing meaning to shapes, 72-76, 77

cognitive, 5, 12, 230

describing shapes, 69-70

diagrams of, 30, 45, 47, 56, 70, 102

distortions in patterns, 40, 41, 45, 52, 72-73

encoding, 41-48, 281-282

in everyday life, 52

externalization, 28

in geoscience, 68-83

GIS, 18, 40, 158, 162-163, 168, 171, 173, 174, 177, 187, 205, 207, 218

identifying/classifying shapes, 69-72

learning, 49

mental, 43, 46, 101

metaphors, 36

motion of objects through space, 80-81

on nonspatial parameters, 79

opacity-transparency issue, 144

ordering, 52

pattern recognition, 40, 76, 78

position/orientation of objects, 37, 77-79

problem solving, 12

remembering location and appearance, 79-80

research needs, 7, 15, 232

scaling, 37, 40

sensory modality and, 26

shape-changing processes, 79

spatial location and, 40

support systems, 8, 134, 140, 141, 148, 150, 158, 233

time factor, 79-80

transformations, 36, 37-38, 41

visualization, 76-77, 80-81

Spatial orientation, 26, 52.

See also Coordinate systems

changing, 44

describing, 77-79

determining, 42-43

inferring meaning from, 74

of natural objects, 74, 77-79

real-world relative to conceptual coordinate system, 77-79

Spatial perception, 26, 29, 276, 277

Spatial representations, 4, 5, 7, 14, 15, 17, 20, 26, 40, 57.

See also Diagrams in spatial thinking;

Maps/mapping;

Metaphors

animated, 46, 80, 105, 149

classes and forms, 149

color, 16, 52, 80, 104, 105, 141, 143, 149, 169, 170, 171, 180-181

of concepts in space, 30

curriculum, 47-48, 102

decomposition of, 41

digital, 34, 86

dimensionality, 13, 16, 32, 37, 53, 70, 76-77, 102

effectiveness, 46, 80, 103

encoding processes, 41-48

in everyday life, 32, 52

examples, 3, 12, 19, 150

external, 25, 27-28, 46, 102

GIS support, 118-119

imaging technologies, 19

interference with problem solving, 283

internal (mental) forms, 25, 27-28, 41, 102

interpreting, 47-48, 102

and learning and encoding new information, 107, 108, 282-282

limitations of, 104

maps and mapping, 33-34, 36

mathematics, 114, 115, 116, 118-119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 125, 130, 132

and memory performance, 45, 46, 47, 97, 98, 102, 107, 281-283

of movement/motion, 43, 45

for nonspatial parameters, 82

and orientation, 42-43

physiographic diagrams, 84, 86

practice in creating and transforming, 98-100, 101, 108

in problem solving, 27, 107, 108, 283-284

properties of, 41-42

reasoning with, 47, 87-88, 95-96, 104

relations between dynamic entities, 43

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 2006. Learning to Think Spatially. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11019.
×

relations between static entities, 42-43

role of, 46

science, 47, 57, 102

sensory modalities, 36, 149

structure of classifications, 40

support system capabilities, 149

systems of, 12

and transfer of learning, 101, 281-284

transformations of, 41, 43-45, 98, 274-275

on 2-D space, 30, 33-34, 37, 70, 121, 169

virtual auditory system, 39

Spatial skills and abilities, 19-20.

See also Spatial development

angular estimations, 78-79

categories, 26

chronological age and, 101, 270, 274-275

defined, 26

differences among learners, 266-268, 269

Euclidean, 70, 77

gender differences, 268, 269

group differences in performance, 267, 268-269

intuition, 75, 77, 84

measurement, 274-275

memory, 80

observational skills, 91

organizational ability, 80, 91, 92

sex differences in performance, 269, 273, 276-280

Spatial structures, 25, 36, 37, 95

analysis, 149, 150

extracting, 47, 102

relationships between, 106-107

Spatial thinking and acting

approaches to, 25-28

catalog of elements, 41

committee position statement, 5-7, 230-232

concepts, 18-19, 26, 40, 29-31, 32, 33, 40

contexts for, 29-31, 32, 33

defined, 33

developmentally appropriate education, 270-273

DNA structure as example of, 1-3

educational challenges, 18-19

in everyday life, 12, 49-52, 93, 94

functions of, 3, 5-7, 33, 36

primitives, 36-37, 40

as problem solving, 27-28

processes, 3, 16, 26, 28, 40-48, 82-83, 93;

see also Spatialization

in science, 14-15, 16-17, 55-93, 94

space as basis for, 3, 36-40

value of studying differences in, 209

at work, 12, 52-55, 93, 94

Spatial visualization.

See also Concept maps/mapping

age and, 97

classroom activities, 121, 124-125, 126

content standards, 123, 125

courses, 210

data management, 13, 16, 30, 32, 34, 76-77, 111

defined, 118

design issues, 46

DNA molecule, 3

effectiveness of, 55

expertise, 76-77, 80-81, 84, 88, 96-97, 103

GIS capacity, 9, 169-171, 176, 214, 217-218, 234

information exploration, 156, 157, 158-159, 169, 171, 185, 286

in mathematics, 114, 117, 118, 120, 123, 156

measurement, 26, 81, 276-277

motion of objects through 3D space, 80-81

multidimensional scaling, 12, 27, 111

negative spaces, 81

nonspatial input, 82, 97

problem solving with, 117, 120-126, 131, 133, 276-277

process, 60-61

and recall skills, 282

Science magazine wards, 103

scientific, 3, 36, 46, 55, 56, 73-77, 80

sex differences, 277

of shape changes, 81

skill development in learners, 79, 122-123

spatialization and, 111

in statistical analysis, 155, 156

support systems, 8, 135, 143, 155, 156, 158-159, 169, 217-218, 233, 286

of 3-D objects from 1-D or 2-D data, 13, 16, 32, 37, 53, 76-77, 78, 79, 131

virtual reality systems, 36

for visually impaired people, 36, 188-189

Spatialization, 25, 41.

See also Astrophysical spatialization

ability, 26, 31

in communications, 116

concept graphing tools, 157

of data, 6, 31-33, 34, 35, 111, 148-149, 156, 157, 168-169, 182

defined, 30, 168

GIS capacity for, 168-169, 176, 182

high-tech support systems, 148, 156-159

and information retrieval, 34

of mapping domains, 111

multidimensional scaling, 111

of nonspatial data, 168-169

in numbers and operations, 116

process, 31-32

software tools, 156, 157

support systems for, 8, 148, 156-159, 168-169, 182, 233

visualization and, 111

Spatialized query user interface, 35

Speech recognition software, 188

Standard candle, 64

Standards. See National Education Standards

State Plane Coordinate System (SPCS), 148, 149, 183

State University of New York–Buffalo, 289

Statistical analyses, 12, 19, 82, 89-90, 91, 92, 117, 141, 149, 155, 156, 159, 175, 183, 190, 205, 273, 285, 288

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 2006. Learning to Think Spatially. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11019.
×

Statistical interaction, 279, 280

Struve, Friedrich von, 62

Support systems and tools, 13.

See also Geographic information systems;

other specific systems and software packages

analytical capabilities, 150

appropriateness to student needs, 141, 146, 147, 151

barriers to classroom use, 179

committee position statement, 7-8, 233-234

context considerations, 147

costs of learning, 20

design criteria, 145-147, 218-219

discipline-specific, 19

educational challenges, 7-10, 19-20, 144-145, 233-235

end-means issue, 144

expert users, 141-142

functions of, 140-141, 143

high-tech, 19, 135, 136, 141, 142, 155-165, 179

implementation, 144, 151-152

instruction process, 144

in K-12 context, 150-152

limitations of, 141-145, 146, 157

low-tech, 19, 84-86, 87, 135, 136, 137-140, 141, 142, 150-151, 155

meeting education goals, 145, 147

nature of, 135-140

need for, 147-148

novice users, 144

opacity-transparency issue, 144

operations capabilities, 150

power-limitations issue, 145

representations, 149

requirements of, 148-150, 217-218

rote learning-comprehension issue, 144-145

spatialization of data, 148-149

and transfer of learning, 142, 143, 147, 176, 179-181, 182, 183

transformation capability, 149

visual, 55

visualization of results, 149

Surpac Minex, 156, 285

Surveying, 287, 288

T

T-S diagrams, 82

Teachers

demands on, 200-201, 212

GIS skills, 208, 219

professional development opportunities, 207-208, 222

training issues, 13, 45-46, 189-190, 202, 206-208, 219-220, 291

Teaching spatial thinking, 3-4, 26, 45-46.

See also Educational challenges;

K-12 curriculum

diagrams as aids to, 47-48, 50, 102, 116, 138, 139, 283

examples of using GIS, 11-12, 179-181, 212-213, 237-240

facilitating GIS, 179

formal instruction in spatial ideas, 131

inquiry approach, 133-134, 140, 145

reasoning, 3, 47

reinstatement and generation techniques, 282-283

Technology, 13, 55

barriers to classroom use, 179

collaborative, 192-193

coordinators, 202

mathematics education standard, 119

Technology in Education Research Consortium (ERC), 191, 208, 290

Temperature, 82

Tetris, 100, 105

Texture, 36, 41, 42, 43, 70-71, 72, 84, 169

Tharp, Marie, 48, 56, 76-77, 79, 83-88

ThemeRiver, 157

Thinking.

See also Spatial thinking and acting

forms of, 12

Thought experiments, 95

Time, 40, 55

coordinate, 171

dimension, 56, 57, 59

distance in space as measure of, 81-82

geological, 81-82

leap year, 57

GIS modeling capability, 171

Topology, 36, 113, 171, 173, 272, 287

TouchGraph, 157

Transfer of learning, 52

curriculum infusion and, 5, 6, 101, 105-107, 109, 120, 134, 147, 176, 179-181, 182, 183, 231

direct application theory, 106

domain specificity, 5, 45-46, 99, 100, 105-107, 108, 109, 145, 231

education standards and, 120

far, 100, 105, 106

instruction and, 106-107, 134

mental rotation skills, 101

near, 100, 105

negative, 143

pattern recognition skills, 53, 100

practice and, 95, 99, 101, 105, 107

preparation for future learning, 106

representations and, 101, 281-284

support systems and, 142, 143, 144-145, 147, 176, 179-181, 182, 183

testing for, 106

visualization skills, 100

ways to facilitate, 46, 95, 105-107, 143, 147, 176, 179-181, 182, 183

Transformations, 3, 5, 12, 27, 230

age and skill in, 274-275

in coordinate systems, 149, 173

defined, 149

detecting embedded figures, 44

dimensionality, 40

domain specificity, 100

enacting, 43, 44-45, 47

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 2006. Learning to Think Spatially. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11019.
×

geometry standard, 114, 117, 118, 125, 130

GIS, 158-159, 169, 171-173, 174, 177, 218

learning, 102

mathematical and statistical analysis systems, 130, 156

memory and, 46, 100

mental rotation, 18, 26, 27, 31, 40, 43, 44, 47, 52, 83, 98, 99-102, 107, 123, 130, 133, 150, 266, 267, 268, 274, 275, 276-277, 280

novices vs. experts, 47, 108, 274-275

operations, 30, 37-38, 44, 59, 173

ordering, 45

orientation changes, 44, 102

of patterns, 100

perspective changes, 44

practice in, 98, 100, 101, 102, 108, 274-275

processes, 45, 98

properties of, 41

and reasoning, 45

reconfiguring parts, 44

of representations, 41, 43-45, 98, 274-275

in scale, 28, 36, 47, 56, 102

shadow projection task, 274-275

support systems for, 8, 148, 149, 150, 156, 158-159, 169, 171, 173, 174, 177, 218, 233

Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), 113-114

TurboCAD, 285

U

Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM), 149, 183

University Consortium for Geographic Information Science (UCGIS), 215, 287

University of Arizona, 291

University of California Santa Barbara, 38, 289

University of Kansas, 289, 292

University of Maine, 289

University of Minnesota, 207

University of Wyoming, 207

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 215

U.S. Department of Education, 113, 201, 220

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 16

U.S. Navstar, 38

U.S. Navy, 84

U.S. State Department, 292

User interfaces, 222, 224, 234

application program interface, 156, 157, 173-174, 177, 184, 188

command-line style, 177

customized, 224

for English language learners, 189-190

GIS, 9, 171, 173, 177, 178, 182, 183-184, 185, 188-189, 191-192, 193, 196-197, 214, 215, 218, 219, 222, 224

nonvisual, 188-189

pictorial, 177, 178

query, 34-35, 173, 175, 196-197

standards, 215

vehicle navigation systems, 143

virtual auditory display, 39

WIMP, 173, 174, 177

wizards, 9, 177, 184, 219

V

Vector data model, 70, 160, 161, 173, 175, 223

Vega, 62

Vegetation mapping and analysis, 180-181, 190

Verbal thinking, 25-26

Video games, 100, 105, 169, 182, 188

Virtual auditory display, 39

Virtual Campus, 291

Virtual Immersion in Science Inquiry for Teachers, 291

Virtual reality systems, 27, 36, 141

Virtual world

access to, 110-111;

see also User interfaces

displays, 39, 111, 141

GIS applications, 171, 188-189, 237, 291

teacher training, 291

for visually impaired learners, 188-189

Visual Basic, 166, 174

Visual browsing query process, 34

Visual exploration systems, 157, 159, 169, 177, 179

Visualization.

See also Spatial visualization

Visualizations in Science and Mathematics (VISM), 291

Visualizing Earth (VisEarth), 290

Visually impaired people, 36, 38-39, 188-189, 218

von Thunen, Johann Heinrich, 88

Vulcan, 156

W

Water quality monitoring, 179, 180, 212-213

Watson, James, 1-3, 55

Wayfinding, 38-39, 94, 142.

See also Navigation

Weber, Alfred, 88

Wegener, Alfred, 72

Wegner, Mark, 49-50

Work force

adequacy of education, 112

cognitive skills, 110-113

GIS applications, 168

international competition, 111-113

IT applications, 111

Workplace

demand for knowledge workers, 110-111

spatial thinking, 12, 52-55

Workplace Investment Act of 1998, 17

World Health Organization (WHO), 16

World Resources Institute (WRI), 291

World Watcher program, 290

Z

Zoologists/zoology, 69

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 2006. Learning to Think Spatially. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11019.
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Learning to Think Spatially examines how spatial thinking might be incorporated into existing standards-based instruction across the school curriculum. Spatial thinking must be recognized as a fundamental part of K–12 education and as an integrator and a facilitator for problem solving across the curriculum. With advances in computing technologies and the increasing availability of geospatial data, spatial thinking will play a significant role in the information-based economy of the twenty-first century. Using appropriately designed support systems tailored to the K–12 context, spatial thinking can be taught formally to all students. A geographic information system (GIS) offers one example of a high-technology support system that can enable students and teachers to practice and apply spatial thinking in many areas of the curriculum.

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