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Elements of a National Materials Policy (1972)

Chapter: Implications of Environmental Protection Policy for Materials Policy

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Suggested Citation:"Implications of Environmental Protection Policy for Materials Policy." National Research Council. 1972. Elements of a National Materials Policy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/20463.
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Suggested Citation:"Implications of Environmental Protection Policy for Materials Policy." National Research Council. 1972. Elements of a National Materials Policy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/20463.
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Suggested Citation:"Implications of Environmental Protection Policy for Materials Policy." National Research Council. 1972. Elements of a National Materials Policy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/20463.
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Suggested Citation:"Implications of Environmental Protection Policy for Materials Policy." National Research Council. 1972. Elements of a National Materials Policy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/20463.
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Page 23
Suggested Citation:"Implications of Environmental Protection Policy for Materials Policy." National Research Council. 1972. Elements of a National Materials Policy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/20463.
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Page 24
Suggested Citation:"Implications of Environmental Protection Policy for Materials Policy." National Research Council. 1972. Elements of a National Materials Policy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/20463.
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Suggested Citation:"Implications of Environmental Protection Policy for Materials Policy." National Research Council. 1972. Elements of a National Materials Policy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/20463.
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Suggested Citation:"Implications of Environmental Protection Policy for Materials Policy." National Research Council. 1972. Elements of a National Materials Policy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/20463.
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Suggested Citation:"Implications of Environmental Protection Policy for Materials Policy." National Research Council. 1972. Elements of a National Materials Policy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/20463.
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-22- d e st r u c t i v e e n v i r o n me n t al c o n s e q u e n c e s . I n a b ro a d vi ew o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n s e q u e n c e s , i f i t d o e s b e c om e o b v i o u s t ha t the r e a r e i n ad e q u a t e m i n e r a l r e s o u r c e s t o s u p p o r t t h e g r ow i n g p o p u l a t i o n s o f t h e w o r l d at t h e d e s i r e d s t a n d ­ a r d o f l i v i n g , w h a t m ea s u r e s w i l l o r s ho u l d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ad o p t t o l i m i t i t s c o n s u m p t i o n o r t o a s s u r e t h e d e ­ s i r e d m a t e r i al s s u pply t o o u r c o u n t ry? Bel ow we l i s t s e l e c t e d c r i t i c a l i s s u e s , s ele c t e d i m ­ p o r ta n t r e s e a r ch n e e d s , and r e c omme n da t i o n s fo r r e s e a r c h a n d e d u c at i o n i n r e s o u r c e u s e . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t i m e d i d n o t s u f f i c e fo r the p r e pa r a t i o n o f t h o u gh t ful w r i t t e n r e s p o n s e s to a l l t h e q u e s tio ns w e c o n sid er to b e Qerm a n e. 1. E n vir o nmental c o s t a c c o u n tin g: T h e co s t of m ater i a l s ex t r a c t i o n �u s t b e made to in c l u d e t h e c o s t o f p r e v e ntin g or r epairing e n vi r o n ­ me nt al d ama g e to l i v i n g s y st em s . T h e p ric e o f r a w met a l s a n d o the r mi n e r al s un d e r p r e s e nt m et h o d s a n d co n t r ol s i s a ve ry s ma l l pe r c e ntage of the G N P a n d c o u l d b e d o u b l ed o r t ripl e d wi t h o u t m ajo r i n f l u e n ce on t he c ost of man ufac t u r e d a rtic l e s . A p r o b l e m to b e w o r k e d o ut is h o w be s t to co p e with no n - do m e stic s u p p l i e r s n o t o p e r ati n g un d e r simi l ar co ntr ols . 2. D a m age f r o m w a st e s : D a ma ge t o p h y s ic a l a n d bio l o gic al s y s t e m s f r o m w a st e s mu st b e r e c o g ni z e d a n d m i n i m i z e d a t e v e ry ste p f r o m m i n e to u l timate u s e r .

-23- 3. M o n i t o r i n g c o n t a m i n a n t s : A n a l y t i c al c a p a b i l i t i e s n e e d t o b e e s t a b l i s h e d a n d m a i n t a i n e d a t a p p ro p r i a t e s t a t i o n s t o m o n i t o r t h e le v ­ e l s o f c o n t a m i n a n t s ( e . g . , H g , A s , P b , C d , N i , a e , so2, a s b e s t o s ) f ro m m a t e r i a l s - p ro c e s s i n g a n d f r o m n a t u r e a n d t o i d e n t i fy m a j o r s i n k s , s o u r c e s , a n d flow s i n n a t u r a l sy s t e m s . A n a g e n cy o t h e r t h a n t h o s e r e s p o n s i ble f o r d e v e l o p i n g r e s o u r c e s a n d t h u s g e n er a t i n g c o n t am i n a n t s s h o u l d b e c h a r g e d w i t h t h i s t a s k . T h u s , a t p r e s e n t l e v e l s o f d e v elo pment , A EC sho uld no t b e r e spon s i b l e b o t h fo r a tom i c e n e r g y s o u r c e s a n d g e n e r a t i o n a nd fo r s e t t i n g e m i s s i o n s t a n d a r d s a n d c o n t r o l s , a l t h o u g h t h a t may h ave b e e n a n a p p ro p r i a t e d u a l f u n c t i o n w h e n t h e o nly re a l t e c h n i c a l e x p e r t i s e l a y w i t h i n A E C a s a p ro ­ mo t i o n a l a g e n c y . In s u c h i n s t a n c e s o f em b ry o n i c t e c h ­ no l o g y , t h e r e s hou l d a l w a y s b e a p l a n n e d a n d p h a s e d t r a n s i t i o n o f r e g u l a t o ry r e s p o n s i b i l i ty f r o m t h e pro m o ­ t i o na l a g e n c y t o a n i nde p e n d e n t a g e n cy a s t h e t o t a l b o d y o f a v a i l a b l e e x p e r t i s e a l l o w s . 4. F i n i t ene s s o f c r i tic al com ponents o f b i �log i c sys tems: Among o ther d e ple t a ble ma t er i al r e s o urce s , pho s­ p h o r u s i s em p h a s i z e d a t t hi s po i nt b e c a u s e i t i s an e s s en t i a l re so u r c e fo r a g r i c u l t u r e ( a s we l l a s a poll u t­ ant o f la k e s ) b u t i s not cycl i c w i t hin t i me s o f i nte r e s t to ma n. P h o s pho r u s i s e s s e n t i al to all l i f e , i n c l ud i n g t h e food we grow. A s pho s p h ate s are b oth n o n s u b s ti t u t a ble

- l4- a n d n o n r e n e w ab l e , i t i s e s s e n ti a l t o r e - e v a l u a t e g l o b a l r e s o u r c e s a n d r e c y c l i n g o f ph o s p h at e s i n a n e colo gi - c a l c o nt e x t a n d t o i m p r o v e o n t h e p r e s e n t h i g h l y i n e f f i ­ c i e n t u s e o f p h o s p h o r u s. 5. E n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n s e q u e n c e s o f d e v el o pm e n t o f e n e r gy r e ­ s o u r c e s: Al t h o u g h e n e r gy r e s o u r c e s m a y b e v e ry l a r g e , u n ­ l i m i t e d d e v e l o pme n t o f e n e r g y re s o u r c e s wo ul d u n a c c e p ­ t a b l y i n c r e a s e e x i s t i n g p r ob l e m s o f h e a t d i s p o s a l , n o t t o m e n t i o n o t h e r e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n s e q u e n c e s s u c h a s n o x i o u s p o l l u t a n t s a n d s o l i d - w a s t e d i s p o s a l p r o b l e m s . T h e s a fe an d e n v i r o n me n t a l l y a c c e p t abl e m a n a g em e n t a n d c o n t r ol o f t h e s e c o n s e q u e n c e s m u s t b e a n i n t e g r al p a r t o f f u t u r e p r o d u c t i o n . 6 . L e gal i n c e n t i v e s fo r e n v i r o n m e n t a l m a n a g e m e n t : L e g a l r e s p o n s i b i l i ty m u s t b e e s t abl i s h e d o n a r e ­ gi o n al b a s i s t o a s s u r e c o n t i n u e d b i olo g i c al a n d m a t e r ­ i al p r o d u c t i v i ty a t s u s t a i n a bl e l e v e l s , n o t g ro w t h o f o n e a t t h e e x p e n s e o f t h e o t h e r. 7. E n v i r o n m e n t al r e c l a m a t i o n : B i o l o g i c a l p r o d u c t i v i ty m u s t b e r e s t o r e d i n a r e a s t h a t h a v e i n t h e p a s t b e e n d eq r a d e d b y ma t e r i a l s e x ­ t r a c t i o n . F u t u re d i s p o s al o f m i n e a n d s m e l t e r w a s t e s m u s t b e p l a n n e d i n a d v a n c e t o b e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h e c o ­ l o g i c a l g o a l s . S u r f a c e m i n i n g i s a m a j o r s o u r c e o f l a n d d i s t u r b a n c e a n d p o t e n t i al c o n t a m i n a t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y

- 25- i n l a r g e - v o l u m e o p e r a t i o n s s u c h a s s t r i p - m i n i n g fo r c o al a n d t h e o p e n - p i t m i n i n g o f p o r p h y ry c o p p e r a n d lo w - g r a d e i r o n o r e s . P a r t i c ul a r a t t e n t i o n s h o ul d b e p a i d t o s u c h o p e r a t i o n s . 8. C om p e n s a t i o n f o r e n v i r o n me n t al d e g r a d a t i o n o r l o s s o f e m p l o y m e n t d u e t o m a t e r i a l s p r o d u c t i o n o r n o n - p r o d u c ­ t i o n d e e m e d e s s e n t i al t o t h e g e n e r a l w el f a r e : I n o r d e r t o r e d u c e o r p r e v e n t e c o n o m i c a n d o t h e r i n e q u i t i e s a s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f n a t i o n al z o n i n g p ol i ­ c i e s , w e s h o ul d c o n s i d e r t h e e v ol u t i o n o f p l a n s w h e r e ­ by a f f e c t e d r e g i o n s m ay b e c o m p e n s a t e d f o r d e g r a d a ­ t i o n o f t h e i r e n v i r o n me n t b e c a u s e o f e x pl o i t a t i o n c o n ­ s i d e r e d n e c e s s a ry f o r t h e n a t i o n a l w e l f a re , o r n o n ­ d e v e l o pm e n t f o r s i m i l a r r e a s o n s . F o r e x a m pl e , c o al m i n i n g i n t h e F o u r C o r n e r s a r e a b e n e f i t s a l a r g e r e ­ g i o n a s a p o we r s o u rc e t o t h e d e t ri m e n t o f l o c al p o p u ­ l a t i o n s. I n o t h e r a re a s l o c al u n e m p l oy m e n t m ay r e s ul t e i t h e r f r o m i mp a i rme n t o f t ra d i t i o n al e n t e r p r i s e s o r f r o m d e l ibera t e fail u r e t o de v e l o p obvio u s n ew o p p o r­ t u n i t i e s b e c a u s e o f e n v i r o n m e n t al o r s o c i al t r a d e o f f s s e e n a s u n a c c e p t abl e. 9 . Glo b a l p r o bl em s : I n t h e l o n g r u n m e a n s m u s t b e f o u n d to e x t e n d e s ­ s e n t i al e n v i r o n m e n t al r e s t r a i n t s t o t h e e n t i r e wo r l d. T h i s v a s tly c o m ple x a n d i n c r e a s i n g l y u r g e n t p r o bl e m s h o u l d b e t h e s u b j e c t o f s p e c i al s t u d y b y a s u i t a b l e m i x o f p e o pl e .

-26- 10. W i lde r n e s s p r e s e r v a t i o n : I t i s e s s e n t i a l t o r e c o g n i ze t h e v alu e o f a nd t o e s t ab l i s h a g l o ba l s y s t e m o f w i ld e r n e s s a r e a s f o r b a s e ­ l i n e e c olo g i c a l s t ud i e s, p r e s e r v a tio n o f s p e c i e s a n d g e n o ty p e s t h a t m a y h a v e f u t u r e v a l u e , a nd f o r r e crea­ t i o n a l a nd e s t h e t i c v al u e s . S u c h a s y s t e m, h o w e v e r, sh o uld b e e s t ab l i s h ed w i t h d u e re c o g ni tio n o f t h e p o ­ t e n t i a l i t i e s o f all c a nd i d a t e a re a s fo r f u t u r e m i n e r a l p r od u c t i o n a nd t h e ki n d s o f p r e s s u r e s a n d c o n f l i c t s t h a t m ay em erg e as ot h e r s o u r c e s a r e d e ple t e d . R E S EAR CH N E E D S 1 . I n c r e a s e d re s e arch is n e ed e d i n e c o sys t e m dyn a m i c s : I n p a r t i c u l ar a m o re d et a i l e d u n d e r s t a n d i n g i s re­ q uire d o f t h e p hy sic a l , c h emic a l , a n d b i o l o gica l pro­ c e s s e s t h a t r e g ula t e t h e s truc t ure and f unc t i on o f e c o s y s t e m s . B e t t e r u n d e r s t a ndi n g o f f u n c tio n wi l l im­ p r o v e th e s e n s i tivity o f pr e dicti v e e c o s y ste m m o d e l s , w hic h , i n t u r n , wi l l pr o vi d e bett er e v a l u a tio n o f e n ­ vir o n m e nta l impl i c a tio n s o f pro p o s e d m a t e r i a l s p o l ­ i cie s a n d s u g g e s t n e e d e d m od i fic a ti o n s . 2. Mu l ti-d i s cip l in ary r e s e a rc h in e c o s ys t e m dyn a mic s m u s t b e e n c o u ra g e d : T h is wi l l o ft e n re q uire m o di fic a t i o n o f e xi s tin g i n ­ st; t u t i o n a l o rg a n i z at i o n .

-27- 3 . S t u d i e s l o o k i n g t o w a r d t h e re c o v e ry o f e c o s y s t e m s f r o m p a s t e n v i ro n m e n t a l m i s m a n a g e m e n t n e e d s u p p o r t : S i g n i f i c a n t p o r t i o n s o f t h e e a r t h ' s s u r f a c e s h o w t h e e f f e c t s o f p a s t e x p l o i t a t i o n . W i t h p r o j e c t e d i n ­ c re a s e i n p e r c a p i t a c o n s u m p t i o n o f m a t e r i a l s a n d h u ­ m a n p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h , w e c a n e x p e c t t h a t t h e n u mb e r o f s u c h a r e a s w i l l i n c r e a s e . T h i s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e a s w e d e v e l o p l ow e r - g r a d e o re s . E x a m p l e s o f a re a s a f f e c t e d i n t h e p a s t i n c l u d e p a r t s o f S c o t l a n d d e fo r e s t e d f o r f u e l fo r i ro n s me l t i n g , a n d s i m i l a r u s e o f f o re s t s f o r s m e l t i n g o f c o p p e r i n Cyp r u s a n d s i l v e r - g o l d o re s i n N e v a d a . P a s t a n d c u r re n t g r o u n d d i s t u rb a n c e a n d o t h e r e n v i r o n me n t a l i m p a c t f r o m s u r ­ f a c e m i n i n g fo r c o a l , c o p p e r , a n d i r o n p r o v i d e m o r e i mm e d i a t e i l l u s t r a t i o n s o f t h e p rob l e m s . A C T I O N R E C OMM E N D E D D e e p e r a n d broa d e r u n d e r s ta n di n g s h o u l d b e s o u g h t a n d c o mm u n i c a t e d t o t h e g e n e r a l p ub l i c ab o u t a l t e rn a t i v e s i n m a t e r i a l s a n d e n v i r o n me n t a l m a n a g e m e n t , a n d t h e i r i n t e r ­ a c t i o n s , e s p e c i a l l y a s c o n c e rn s i n h e r e n t a n d p l a n n e d ob ­ s o l e s c e n c e o f m a n u f a c t u r e d p ro d u c t s a n d h i g h r a t e s o f p e r c a p i t a c o n s u m p t i o n o f r a w m a t e r i a l s . M a j o r h a z a rd s c o n ­ f r o n t u s , n o t o n l y i n t h e d e p l e t i o n o f s p e c i f i c k ey i n d u s ­ t r i a l ma t e r i a l s , e s p e c i a l l y w h e r e n o t r e cy c l e d , b u t a l s o i n

- ?.R- i n c r e a s e d e n e rgy d e m a n d s a n d t h e rm a l p o l l u t i o n e v e n w h e r e re c y c l i n g i s p r a c t i c e d . W h i l e w e o u r s e l v e s d o n o t y e t f u l l y u n d e r s t a n d t h e i s ­ s u e s a n d h e n c e a r e u n a b l e t o a r t i c u l a t e t h e m i n s p e c i f i c q u a n t i t a t i v e a n d c o m p re h e n s i v e t e rm s , w e a re u n e a s i l y a n d a c u t e l y a w a re t h a t c u r re n t o r i n c r e a s e d d o u b l i n g t i me s o f p o p u l a t i o n g ro w t h a n d m a t e r i a l c o n s u m p t i o n c a n n o t b e s u s ­ t a i n e d a n d a l l o w l i t t l e r e a c t i o n t i me a f t e r p e r c e p t i o n o f i m p e n d i n g c r i s e s . T h e i n f o rm a t i o n n o w a v a i l a b l e t o t h e p u b l i c c o m e s f ro m a w i d e v a r i e ty o f d i f f e r i n g o r c o n f l i c t i n g v i e w s , e a c h o f w h i c h t e n d s t o e x h o r t r a t h e r t h a n i n f o rm . R e s e a r c h a n d p u b ­ l i c i n f o rma t i o n fo r u m s a re n e e d e d t o re s o l v e o r n a r r o w t h e d i f f e r e n c e s o f v i e w a n d i n fo rm t h e p u b l i c a b o u t q u e s t i o n s s u c h a s t h e m a t e r i a l s a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o s t s o f m o d e l o b ­ s o l e s c e n c e , p r o d u c t d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n , a n d l u x u ry p ro d u c t s ; a n d t h e a f f e c t o f a d v e r t i s i n g o n f a c t o r s s u c h a s m a t e r i a l c o n s u m p t i o n , p r o d u c t c h o i c e , c o n s e r v a t i o n , a n d e n v i r o n me n t a l p ro t e c t i o n . B e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d b e t t e r c o mm u n i c a t i o n i s n e e d e d a b o u t t h e re l a t i v e e f f e c t s o f p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h a n d p e r c a p i t a r a t e s o f c o n s u m p t i o n b o t h i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d g l o b a l l y .

-29- C h a p t e r I I I R E C Y C L I N G , S U B S T I T U T I O N , S Y N T H E S I S , A N D D E S I G N R e c y c l i n g , s u u s t i t u t i o n , s y n t h e s i s , a n d a p p ro p r i a t e d e s i g n c o n s e rv e r a w m a t e r i a l s a n d t h u s s u p p l e m e n t p r i m a ry r e s o u r c e s . T h e s e p r a c t i c e s may a l s o re s u l t i n o t h e r b e n e ­ f i t s , s u c h a s a r e d u c t i o n o f p o l l u t i o n a n d o f e n e r g y r e ­ q u i r e m e n t s re l a t i v e t o p r i m a ry p r o d u c t i o n . S u c h s i d e e f ­ fe c t s , h o w e v e r , d o n o t a c c r u e a u t o ma t i c a l l y b u t r e q u i r e s u i t a b l e p l a n n i n g . I t i s d e s i r a b l e i n a l l c a s e s t h a t r e ­ c y c l i n g , s u b s t i t u t i o n , s y nt h e s i s , a n d m a t e r i a l s - o r i e n t e d d e s i g n s h o ul d i m p o s e t h e f e w e s t p o s s i b l e c o n s t r a i n t s o n p r o c e s s i n g an d s e r v i c e p e r f o rm a n c e . R e c y c l i n g , s u b st i t u t i o n , s y n t h e s i s , a n d m a t e r i a l s ­ o r i e n t e d d e s i g n , i n t h e a b s e n c e o f a p p r o p r i a t e m a r k e t fo rc e s , c a n b e p ro m o t e d by a p p r o p r i a t e m e a s u r e s o f p u b l i c p o l i c y , s u c h a s s u b s i d i e s o r f a v o r a b l e t a x a t i o n . Co n s t r u c ­ t i v e p u b l i c a t t i t u d e s c a n c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e a c c e p t a n c e o f re cy c l e d , s u b s t i t u t e d , o r s y n t h e t i c m a t e r i al s e v e n i f t h ey i n v o l v e s o m e c h a n g e s f ro m t h e t r a d i t i o n a l e x p e c t a t i o n s o f c o n s u m e r s . I n t h i s w a y t h e g e n e r a l p u b l i c c a n p l ay a p o s i ­ t i v e ro l e , a n d t h e s a m e h o l d s fo r g o v e r nm e n t a g e n c i e s o n a l l l e v e l s t h r o u g h t h e i r p r o c u r e me n t p o l i c i e s . I t w i l l b e p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t t o i n d u c e b u s i n e s s o r g a n i z a t i o n s t o a d o p t p r a c t i c e s d e s i g n e d t o c o n s e r v e m a t e r ­ i a l s . I n c e n t i v e s m u s t b e d e v i s e d t o t u r n d e c i s i o n - m a k e r s a n d d e s i g n e r s i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f s u b s t i t u t i o n , s y n t h e s i s ,

-30- a n d m a t e r i a l s - o r i e n t e d d e s i g n . P e r s o n n e l i n i n d u s t ry , a s w e l l a s i n g o v e r n m e n t , w i l l h a v e t o b e m a d e a c c o u n t a bl e fo r a c t i n g o n s u c h p ol i c i e s by m o re e f f e c t i v e m e c h a n i s m s t h a n a r e n o w a t h a n d . Atte n t i o n t o t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s s p e c i f i ed s h o uld b e c o m e o n e o f t h e c r i t e r i a o f p e r f o rm a n c e i n t h e s a me w ay t h a t p ro f i t a b i l i ty , sa f ety o f o p e r a t i o n , a n d o t h e r s a r e n o w a c c e p t e d a s a b a s i s fo r e v al u a t i n g e n g i n e e r ­ i n g d e s i g n a n d p e r f o rm a n c e . W e r e c o g n i z e , o f c o u r s e , t h a t t h e d e s i g n e r , e n g i n e e r , a n d o p e r a t o r wo r k w i t h i n a f r a m e ­ w o r k o f re g u l a t i o n s , s p e c i f i c a t i o n s , a n d c o n v e n t i o n s s e t b y o t h e r s , a n d t h a t t h e s e o f t e n de p e n d o n s u c h c o n s t r a i n i n g f a c t o r s a s c o m p e t i t i v e p re s s u r e s , t r a d e o f f s , a nd c o n s u m e r at t i t u d e s . C h a n g e s , t h e r e fo re , n e e d t o b e m a d e i n t h e p o l ­ i cy - g e n e r a t i n g i n s t i t ut i o n a l a n d e xte r n al s p h e re s a s w e l l a s a t t h e o p e r a t i n g l e v el i f o p e r at i o n al d e c i s i o n - m a k e r s a nd d e s i g n e r s a re e f fe ct i v e l y t o c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e a c t i v a ­ t i o n o f b e t t e r p r a c t i c e s i n m a t e r i al s u t i l i z a t i o n a nd c o n ­ s e r v at i o n . O u r mo re s p e c i f i c c o n c l u s i o n s a n d r e c o mm e n d a t i o n s a re e m b o d i ed i n t h e follo w i n g t a b ul a t i o n o f i s s u e s , p ro b l e m s , n e e d s , a n d o p p o rtu n i t i e s . G E N E R A L C O N S I D E R AT I O N S T h e f o l l ow i n g g e n e r a l s t e p s a r e h e l d t o b e e s s e n t i a l p a r t s o f t h e an a l y s i s o f p ot e n t i a l i t i e s a n d p r o b l e m s i n

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